Background of Archaeoastronomical studies

Studies in this field are very scarce, if not non-existent, compared to studies conducted in other regions such as Mexico, Teotihuacan, the Yucatan Peninsula, and the Mayan pyramids, or in Peru, Cuzco, the Urubamba Valley, and Titicaca.

In the case of the Equinoctial Andes, studies have been carried out by four researchers, the Polish Marius Ziowlskoysky on a brief observation of the directions of the ramps of the Cochasquí pyramids, without results that provide useful information. The Russian Valentin Yurevich, former Director of the Alameda Astronomical Observatory in Quito, who made some observations, notes and measurements regarding some lithic discs existing in the valley of San Antonio de Pichincha, formerly known as Lulumbamba. His investigations have been very useful for subsequent studies and explorations carried out by the Israeli student Daniel Zborover who attempted to make some interpretations of the baked clay platforms located on the tops of the Cochasquí pyramids; and the same applies to the research carried out by Cristóbal Cobo, author of this text, who is dedicated to the most detailed and exhaustive research of the same region, but considering the Archaeological Site of Monte Catequilla as a possible site chosen and built by the pre-Inca cultures with a possible awareness of their displacement along the equinoctial line.

The four authors conducted research using methodologies and technologies appropriate for this type of study. The studies have also been published accordingly (see References).

Unfortunately, none of the projects have been able to establish conclusive results due to the lack of interest from the academic community and the institutions responsible for safeguarding and researching Cultural Heritage. The lack of funding for research has prevented the proposal of a long-term, comprehensive project. Only the Quitsato project, dedicated to research on Catequilla, has been able to continue with some studies in the last fifteen years. These studies are presented briefly and simply in this text, in order to present a simple description of the hypothesis currently being worked on.

Essential considerations for the introduction of archaeoastronomical studies in the Equinoctial Andes.

If we wish to fully understand the worldview of the region's inhabitants in pre-Hispanic times, we must abandon established patterns grounded in the worldview of the present. It is simply impossible to try to interpret the region's geography, archaeology, and astronomy with conventions imposed by a historical process, the same one that imported a way of thinking completely exogenous to the environment we are addressing in this analysis. We must, inevitably, rethink the natural order of the environment under study, in order to be able to correlate, as far as possible, the life of the region's ancient inhabitants with their habitat.

So, we will start with a recognition of the spatial environment.

Orientation.

Orientation, from the Latin Oriens, meaning "where the sun rises." Orient, Origin, Orien, Orto, Oro, are words related to their etymological meaning and origin.

Facing north-south or south-north are exclusive perspectives of the spatial environment. If the observer looks north, they will lose the perspective of the southern celestial vault. The same will happen if the observer looks south, and they will lose the perspective of the northern celestial vault. Furthermore, there are no fixed points of astronomical reference. For example, the North Star, Polaris in the Little Dipper, is not a fixed point in the celestial vault due to the Earth's precession.

The most fixed point in the cosmos for an observer on Earth will be the East, where the sun appears at the equinoxes. This is a nearly fixed point, with only a slight, permanent oscillation but variable displacements in both time and space of no more than 0.40 arc seconds, or about 14 meters. However, relative to the Sun, this displacement, due to the gravitational effects of the Moon and the Sun, is imperceptible to the human eye, because the apparent size of the solar disk is about 31 arc minutes.

The only integral direction in which we should direct our observation, in order to obtain a natural perspective, is towards the East, that is, truly orienting ourselves, as the meaning of the word itself says, that is, orienting ourselves towards the East.

With the perspective towards the East, we will not only obtain a fixed point of observation, but also the ability to observe the celestial vault in its entirety, with all its stars visible, and thus we will be able to understand the apparent movements of the stars and consequently their true movements, since we will observe the points where the stars appear and their respective transits or apparent movements.

We say apparent movements because it is not the stars that move with respect to the observer, but the Earth that rotates, therefore it seems to our eyes that the stars have their movement.

In the case of the Moon and the visible planets, it must be considered that each of them has its own independent motion, and understanding their motion is very complex, and we will not address this topic in this text.

The West direction is the least functional, since it is impossible to observe the stars and their apparent movements once they disappear.

Therefore, the direction that helps us from the beginning to have a comprehensive awareness of the surrounding space is toward the East. And for ancient cultures such as the Mayans, Greeks, Chinese, Hindus, etc., the East was always their reference point, and most of their main buildings were oriented toward it.

Apparent movements of the Astros.

From the earliest stages of human development, humans have always observed their environment in order to obtain the primary sources that would allow for their subsistence. This important aspect of patient and systematic observation contributed to the evolution of knowledge about all the resources that surrounded them, ranging from biological diversity, water resources, geomorphological resources, as well as a deep understanding of the topography of the territories where they lived; that is, a thorough understanding of their geographic and environmental surroundings. They also observed that both fauna and flora behaved differently according to climatic changes, or the most visible seasonal changes such as those of day and night. They even learned to distinguish environmental variations at different times, which were governed by and related to the movements of the stars. Thus, they surely learned to define and classify the different regions and directions, which in turn indicated different periods with cycles and rhythms of time.

As the various processes of sedentarization evolved, humans also began to gradually develop a knowledge of planetary movements, locating the different risings and setting of stars, their appearance and setting on the horizon. This is the case with the most important stars, such as the Sun and the Moon, which very easily indicated periods of time by indicating the extremes of their risings and setting on the horizon.

Obliquity of the Ecliptic

Our planet is located at 23° 26.29 inches, tilted relative to the plane of its orbit in the solar system. This tilt is one of the most important factors for life on our planet. This is why we have seasons, as the sun shines on the southern hemisphere at one time of the year and the northern hemisphere at another, giving rise to the seasons.

To better understand this situation, we must first understand two models: the heliocentric and the geocentric. (Bakulin, Kononovich, Moroz, 1983)

HELIOCENTRIC MODEL

Helium means Sun, so when we place the sun in the center of our perspective, we will observe that we can divide the positioning of the Earth in its orbit into four phases:

• When the Sun projects its radiation perpendicularly on the equinoctial line.
• When the Sun projects its radiation onto the northern hemisphere of the planet and perpendicularly onto the Tropic of Cancer.
• When the Sun projects its radiation onto the southern hemisphere of the planet and perpendicularly onto the Tropic of Capricorn.
• When the Sun projects its radiation perpendicularly onto the equinoctial line again.(IBDEM)

EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON THE EQUINOXES AND SOLSTICES

GEOCENTRIC MODEL

GEO stands for Earth, so when we look at the horizon from any point on Earth, we can see the stars rise and set in different positions every day, and this happens over the course of a year.

This movement is the apparent movement of the stars, since it is not the stars that move but rather our planet that has this inclination of 23° ½, exactly 23 degrees 26 minutes and 29 seconds, this inclination suffers slight changes over time due to the gravitational effects of the Moon and its Nutation movement that responds to a cycle of 18.6 years, (Bakulin, Kononovich, Moroz, 1983).

REPRESENTS THE GEOCENTRIC MODEL WITH ITS 12 ALIGNMENTS

PRECESSION MOVEMENT.

The sun and moon apply a rotational force to the Earth, causing a change in the orientation of its rotational axis. Consequently, the declination of stars shifts up to 47 degrees in a span of 25,800 years, shifting the location of their rising and setting. The path followed by the Earth's rotational axis is a small circle in the sky that maintains the obliquity of the ecliptic at about 23.5 degrees, so that precession does not change the position and setting of the sun.

The position at which celestial objects rise and set changes slowly over time. Since the Inca period, changes in the "obliquity of the ecliptic" have shifted the position at which the sun rises and sets at the solstices. Precession changes the orientation of the Earth's rotational axis and has shifted the position at which some stars rise and set by several degrees. This corresponds to a spatial misalignment of less than five meters (either at the horizon or at the point itself), a negligible difference compared to the uncertainty regarding the precise location from which observations were made within archaeological sites (Dearborn, 1998).

PRECESSION MOVEMENT

THE SOLSTICES AND EQUINOXES

From a fixed point, we can observe the sun rising each morning and setting in the afternoon at different locations. Part of the year it will travel north, part of the year it will travel south, and they return, making the same movement, stopping at the same northern and southern locations. We call these locations the solstice points, which means "still sun." These points are marked by the Tropic of Cancer to the north and the Tropic of Capricorn to the south. If we stand at any of these points during the year, we will see that the sun will be perfectly positioned at its zenith, which is the highest point in space.

Between these points, we find the Equinoctial Line, where the sun will be perfectly perpendicular and is determined by the equinoxes. Equinox means equal night, since we have equal observations of both the northern and southern horizons.

The return of a point to the same point at the solstices occurs within a one-year cycle, and at the equinoxes every six months at the same point.

The solstices and equinoxes divide the year into four sections marked by the seasons; at the northern solstice, the sun warms the northern part of the hemisphere, so it is summer in the north and colder in the south, so it is winter in the south; at the equinoxes, a balance occurs, so there is autumn and spring; and at the southern solstice, the seasonal change is reversed, with summer in the south and winter in the north.

The cycle of a year has been divided by man into 12 months and the months that correspond to the solstices and equinoxes are:

Northern Solstice: June 21

Equinox: September 23

Southern Solstice: December 22

Equinox: March 21. .(Bakulin, Kononovich, Moroz, 1983)

These dates are also subject to other variables, such as leap years, where we will have to advance them by one day.

THE SUN

The sun was attributed the superiority of all things worshipped and venerated, and it was considered the universal creator of all that was made, and provider of all that could be created, said Miguel Cabello de Balboa, referring to the pagan and idolatrous customs of the pre-Inca cultures.

From the earliest stages of human development, humans have always observed their surroundings in order to obtain the primary sources that allow for their subsistence. They also observed that the ecological environment depended on the movements of the stars. For example, agriculture was practiced using agricultural calendars to determine when to sow and when to harvest. The only means of development for these calendars was astronomical calculations and observations.

As the different processes of sedentarization evolved, human beings also began to develop a gradual and more demanding knowledge of the movements of the most important stars, such as the sun and the moon, and their rising and setting horizons.

The ancient inhabitants of the equinoctial zone likely followed these movements very patiently, and we assume that this is how they were able to determine the places where, during the equinoxes, the sun casts no shadow at noon because it is perfectly positioned at its zenith. And this may have been partly one of the means by which they determined the position of the Equinoctial Line in Catequilla, a mountain located on the eastern side of the town of San Antonio de Pichincha.

MOUNT CATEQUILLA, WEST VIEW.

After selecting this observatory, they likely began locating other sites along the lines projected by the sun at the solstices and equinoxes. This allowed them to make more complex measurements of time and space, as well as gain knowledge of their territory, monitor their population, and develop agricultural calendars for planting, irrigation, and harvesting. Thus, other astronomical observation sites were built, such as pyramids and settlements, perfectly distributed and designed in strategic locations to honor their gods, the stars, the sun, and the moon.

Garcilaso de la Vega, an Inca from Cuzco, maintains that:

The Incas of Cuzco "said that day was the equinoctial day," when the shadow cast by a column traveled in a straight east-west line. The Incas also knew that in Quito, the sun passed directly overhead during the equinoxes, casting no shadow at noon. Garcilaso further maintained that "for this reason...they held the Quito columns in greater veneration." (Taken from Dearborn, 1998).

Although this chronicler is considered unreliable within Andean historiography, the information he describes could never have been fabricated, since what he writes occurs with absolute precision within celestial mechanics. Therefore, we must consider this information of vital importance to explain that Quito, as a destination, implied a sacred objective, since it was the seat of the sun, Inti, the site of their God. The reason for the conquest of Quito by the Incas makes much more sense and justification if this argument is taken as much more convincing than assuming a simple territorial expansion.

The Equatorial or Equinoctial Andes.

Ecuador's geographic location, especially with regard to the Equinoctial Andes, is unique compared to all mountain ranges around the world: its position is almost perpendicular to the Equator. The Equinoctial Andes constitute two structures that run parallel from north to south, the eastern and western mountain ranges. These structures have become the ideal instrument for observing the horizon, providing a perfect horizon for studying the apparent motions of celestial bodies and thus performing the most complex measurements of both time and space.

This mountainous terrain enjoys several advantages that other sites around the world's equator lack, such as the Colombian and Brazilian Amazon, or the forests of Gabon, Congo, and Zaire, as well as the mountain ranges of Uganda and Kenya in Africa, and the islands of Sumatra and Borneo in Indonesia in Asia. The most important factors lie in the heights of the two Andean mountain ranges, which run longitudinally from north to south, and the presence of the inter-Andean valley, where the Catequilla Dome is the only one located at zero latitude. Therefore, it becomes the best site in the world for astronomical observations, as it offers a complete view of the celestial vault, that is, both the northern and southern vaults are accurately seen.

In the case of jungles and forests that exist at other longitudes, the natural horizon is constantly changing. It is a living horizon where vegetation is subject to different biological and artificial changes due to human activity. Therefore, specific points on the horizon cannot be defined to indicate the apparent movements of celestial bodies. This is the case in the Amazon rainforest, the forests of West Africa, and the valleys of Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia. Another very important factor is the short distance between the eastern and western mountain ranges of the Andes, which facilitate communication between different sites. Geodetic management by different ancestral cultures is further complicated by the presence of water where it is impossible to determine specific points on its surface, for example, gnomons, as is the case with Lake Victoria between Uganda and Kenya. Lake Victoria is 198 kilometers long, stretching from its eastern end to its western end. The natural horizon is often lost to observers due to its distance.

For these and many other reasons, this unique region of the Equinoctial Andes has been a primary focus of astronomical observations and geodetic measurements. This is the case with the French Geodetic Missions of 1736, which selected this region for their investigations. The measurements were based on the selection of specific points along the eastern and western mountain ranges to be subjected to trigonometric calculations using much of the inter-Andean corridor that now comprises Ecuador. The specific task of these explorers was to measure a degree of the meridian to verify the true shape of the planet. (Idem.)

Section of the map of the Geodetic Missions, in detail you can see the triangulations made using the mountains of the region.

In this territorial space, there is also a singular fact that must be given due importance and consideration, this is the particular case of the Andean equinoctial societies, whose cultural developments, for various reasons, have been very little taken into account by the scientific community. Perhaps this is because in this area there are no monumental structures such as those found in Mesoamerica (the temples of the sun and the moon, Chichen Itza, Petén) or in Peru (Machu Pichu, Sacsa Huamán, Sechín, etc.). However, it must be analyzed and understood that the concept of monumentality apparently already existed in the conception of equinoctial societies, and was given by the majestic structures of the volcanoes and mountains of this region, such as Cayambe (5790 m.a.s.l.), which is the only volcano, positioned just a few seconds north of the zero parallel; Cotopaxi (5,950 m.a.s.l.), Chimborazo (6,310 m.a.s.l.); lagoons such as Mojanda, San Pablo, etc.

After having briefly analyzed the development of other cultures on the same continent (Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas), it is important not to lose sight of the visual capabilities of the horizons available to equinoctial societies, at relatively short distances. This situation makes feasible the possible existence of a complex knowledge of astronomy on the part of these societies, which hypothetically could correspond to the pre-Inca culture of Quitu-Caranqui.

Catequilla.

The project began with the discovery of a unique and unknown archaeological site located exactly on the zero parallel (0º 0´ 0"). It is the summit of Mount Catequilla, whose position was verified with the WGS 84 datum, which is the most accurate and up-to-date global positioning system. This place was possibly not only the site of the Equinoctial Line positioned by the pre-Inca culture, but it could also have been the matrix axis of a very complex territorial order that developed approximately a thousand years ago.

AERIAL PHOTO OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE OF MOUNT CATEQUILLA, EXACTLY AT ZERO LATITUDE.

Catequilla is an elevation located 2,630 meters above sea level and stands quite independent from the surrounding mountainous structures. This gives it special characteristics, the most important of which is that it is located at the 0° parallel. Its summit enjoys 360-degree visibility, from which 25 different ancient settlements and absolutely all the archaeological sites in the region can be observed without the aid of optical instruments, making observations direct and simple. Its advantageous position between the two great Andean mountain ranges allowed the eastern relief to be used for observing the rising of the stars and the western relief for the setting of the stars. This is the only elevation in the world with these characteristics.

The Indigenous people did not have optical instruments, which is why the natural horizon of the Andean mountain ranges was used as the ideal tool for horizontal observations.

The archaeological site has a semicircular wall, which is built with material from the site and stone, it has an approximate diameter of 70 meters, with a height of 1.80 meters

Archaeologist Oswaldo Tobar, on the hill of Catequilla, began an archaeological excavation in April 1999, and found pre-Inca pottery in a volcanic deposit belonging to the eruption of the Guagua Pichincha volcano dating back 980 years, according to the analysis by volcanologist Patricia Mothes, researcher at the National Polytechnic Geophysical Institute.

At the same time, the relationship between Catequilla and the various archaeological sites in the same equatorial region was verified with the aid of a theodolite and GPS. The result was that the most important sites, such as the Cochasquí pyramids and the Pambamarca archaeological site, converge at the archaeological center of Catequilla following the sunrise and sunset of the June and December solstices.

Other archaeological sites are positioned not only in relation to the solstices but also to other astronomically based directions. Most sites have been positioned by satellite in this study, and alignments have been marked with precise astronomical angles.

This evidence strongly supports the hypothesis that this archaeological site was built specifically for astronomical observations, and may have served as a pivot in a major mechanism for the territorial planning of the area's ancient inhabitants.

Quitsato Project

This is a multidisciplinary study based on archaeology and astronomy, aimed at a correct interpretation of the meaning and functionality of the pre-Hispanic cultural contexts existing in the area of ​​the equinoctial Andes.

Cultural contexts have been interpreted from different perspectives, such as military fortresses; unfortunately, these very ambiguous interpretations lack scientific arguments and foundations. However, when astronomy is applied, concrete evidence can be found that provides us with measurable, quantifiable, and verifiable data.

This project begins with a natural approach to interpreting the cultural context, which we consider more appropriate because it relates to the pre-Hispanic worldview. It also aims to contribute to an adequate study of natural elements, such as celestial bodies and geological structures, which possibly influenced the selection and location of different archaeological sites by societies prior to the Spanish conquest.

The most advanced technology available today was applied, such as satellite technology, global positioning systems, and geographic information systems (GIS). The contexts under study were documented using photographic formats, videos, plans, maps, satellite images, and their respective georeferencing, enabling an integrated data study.

THE ASTRONOMICAL PATRON

The respective sunrises and sunsets on the most important dates project alignments, the same ones that were possibly used by ancient cultures to determine the positioning of other sites within their astronomical geographic network. These alignments of the solstices and equinoxes can in turn be projected perpendicularly by their respective axes, such is the case of the alignment of the equinoxes which corresponds to East 90º and West 270º respectively and its corresponding axis is North 0º and South 180º, likewise the perpendicular axes of the solstices or the plane of the ecliptic turn out to be the axes of the ecliptic.

These alignments, along their respective axes, are applied to archaeological sites to determine an astronomical-geographical relationship with other archaeological sites in the region in question. These alignments must include two or more archaeological sites, and the archaeological sites must accumulate different alignments to determine an astronomical relationship.

Over the past few years, up to the date of this publication, astronomical light phenomena have been filmed, so the project has a documentary record of them. These phenomena occur at specific times related to the solstices and equinoxes.

The best way to achieve the appreciation of these ancient structures is to understand them from their true functionality according to their appropriate use for which they were built and used. This is the only way to understand the value and function that they once had for the society that populated this region, and only in this way will today's society be able to understand the importance of the existence and conservation of these assets. Collaterally, it will also be possible to obtain enlightening information about the historical processes that have affected the region, which will allow us to understand many factors that have intervened until today, such as the use of geographic space, land use and natural resources. Our cultural identity

“…Sight, then, is in my opinion the cause of the highest benefits to us, insomuch that not a single word of our discourse concerning the universe could have been said if we had not been able to see the stars, the sun, and the sky. But the sight of day and night, of the revolving months and years, of the equinox and solstice, has caused the invention of number, and has given us the notion of time and the study of the nature of the world, from which we have derived all philosophy, so that no greater favor has ever been done or ever will be done to mortal man than a gift from heaven.” Plato, Timaeus.